Medicare and Medicaid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Medicare and Medicaid - Essay Example Part B covers: Eighty percent of the approved charges are paid by Medicare Part B after annual deductible is met. It is optional to enroll for Medicare Part B and the Medicare program stays constant from state to state. [1] [2] Medicaid: It means financial aid to pay for care. It is an assistance program which is funded both by the federal government and the individual states. It helps individuals of all ages with low income and medical costs and the eligibility requirements vary from state to state. People who have Medicare coverage can also qualify for Medicaid as they have low income and Medicaid covers their deductibles and co-payments which would have to be paid by them if they were not under Medicaid. It does not cover any kind of custodial care. It covers inpatient and outpatient hospital services, laboratory and x-ray services, physician services, nursing facility services, home health services and services of a nurse-midwife. Every state program includes some prescription drug coverage. There are special rules for people who apply for Medicaid for long-term care: Medicare should modernize and update its package of services according to customers needs because customers try alternative medicines and cross geographical boundaries to get the treatment. Therefore in order to satisfy them, changes have to be made. Patients are troubled with the complexity, paperwork, and regulatory

Fibre Optics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Fibre Optics - Essay Example One of the modern and commonly used applications of fibre optics is high resolution visuals (HDTV) which has enabled us to view broadcasts at 1080p screen resolution which is a result of FTTc and FTTh (fibre to the curb) network. Satellites making use of fibre optics do not have to undergo lessening (fibreopticsinfo). There are generally six theories of light from which the theory of optical fibre has evolved. The relevant theories to optical fibre are emission theory, corpuscular theory, wav theory, electromagnetic theory and quantum theory. Reflection and refraction of light are vital elements in optical fibre. These two properties have been explained by Newton in his laws. Another very important property relative to fibre optics is the critical angle of light. Critical angle is defined as the minimum angle which can allow total internal reflection to take place. This is governed by Snell’s law. There are two theories which explain the propagation of light through optical fi bres. The first theory is the ‘Ray Theory’ under which light is considered to be a simple ray of light and the propagation properties are relevant to that. This theory explains the accepting and guiding behavior of light inside a fibre (Sathish Kumar). The second theory is the ‘Mode Theory’ or the ‘Wave Representation’ approach. According to the Mode Theory, light is an electromagnetic wave and acts like an electromagnetic wave inside a fibre. This theory explains the phenomenon of absorption and dispersion of light inside a fibre as well as its attenuation (The Theory of Optical Fibres). Fibre optic cables are the source of transmission of light using the fibre optics technology. Fibre optic cables enable light to be transmitted along them from one point to another and there is no significant loss in the intensity of light which passes through fibre optical cables. The construction of a fibre optic cable has three main parts: A central core, c ladding and a Plastic Jacket surrounding both the core is present at the centre of the cable which acts as a buffer. It is composed of fine quality thin transparent glass polymer or a dielectric. The refractive index of the core is ?1 and the diameter of the central core ranges from 10 ? to 100 ?. surrounding the central core is a jacket layer of plastic or glass called Cladding. The refractive index (?2) of the cladding has to be smaller than that of the central core so that the light stays inside the core due to total internal reflection (?1 > ?2). Safety and strength are provided to cable by surrounding the cladding and the central core with a plastic jacket or the buffer (Loremate). The transmission of light by fibre optics has the same basic components as the normal wiring transmitting devices. The system comprises of a transmitter, a medium through which the signals are propagated and a receiver. The propagating medium is a cable in case of fibre optics. The transmitter has an ability to emit light with the help of either a light emitting diode or a laser. The user inputs data into the transmitter in the form of audio, video or other data. The encoder or modulator used in the transmitter to convert electrical signals to optical signals is AM, FM or

Debates on Modernist Art Installations

Debates on Modernist Art Installations Standing within the entranceway, the atrium rises above, skylights permeating the inky and surreal display area, each installation glinting beneath the early morning sunlight. Nearby elevators climb exposed and metallic, offsetting the historical and modern paintings on nearby walls with their mechanistic contrast. This view of the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York is both breathtaking and inspiring yet constantly criticized as a detraction from the main participants in this voyeuristic journey, the art forms. In today’s expanding global community, there is a continued evolution of cultural definition, one which is no longer the responsibility of the elders or the overseeing governmental body. Instead, cultural emulsion has been allocated to the increasingly vocal members of social niches, the propagators of coinciding dissent and support, and within this melting pot, there lingers an uncertain future for the world of modern art, as critic and corporation alike vie for e qual say in placement and value. No longer is the industry controlled by the definitive opinions of the bourgeoisie, nor is it evolved through the work of a single revolutionary artist. Instead, art is an experiential form of community, one which is intimately related to the perception of the viewer and the intention of the artist. Within this collaborative experience, however, there is one more singular and remarkable player, the institutional architecture itself. It is from within these walls (or outside of them in some cases) that the viewer retrieves their spatial perception, and thereby a unique frame of reference to the art as it is viewed. The future of modern art institutions lies within the ability to link creative architecture and spectacular art, a task which has proved difficult for many global facilities. Ultimately, the nature of architecture is one which can be easily integrated into the creative maxims of a desirous society; and as culture evades popular dispersion a mid mass media clutter it is the responsibility of the institution to revive identity and meaning. Artistic representation evolved from a question, the internal struggle of a humanity determined to indentify an elusive meaning, a broad spectrum of thought which necessitated expression and discussion.[1] Historically, this impetus was founded on the religious iconography which was so pervasive in the centuries preceding the postmodernist era. Critics such as Ruskin challenged that the artist himself was a conduit of morality from which innate goodness and meritorious intent were required instruments of his art form.[2] Yet this theory could not hold in a society which continued to evade such limiting thought processes and introduce new and more radical ideas, variables of necessity more than revolution. The rise of modernism can be attributed to an institutionalization of radical doubt, a necessitated gathering of hypotheses from which collectivist tenacity can operate among multiple sources of authority.[3] It is from within this new structure that the architectural merits of the institution became divergent from their historical representation. Out of the cube with white walls and steady flow of viewers evolved a framework of participation, one which challenged architects to redefine their structures, creating true destinations to encompass a more discerning postmodern voyeur. The roots of modernism, according to Williams (1992) became a terminus, a limiter among artists who acted outside of the sphere of the large institution, thereby relegating subjectively assumed true artistic talent to the halls of mega-institutions where their modernity would flourish appropriately.[4] It was this realignment of art to institutional display which enabled a much broader public viewership, undermining the nature of elitism and discrimination. Lind (2007) notes that collaboration was an essential factor in the evolution of postmodernism, forming the expectations of community among artists and viewers, an active depiction which endeavored to draw the participants into the unique aesthetic of the art itself and away from the group-think expectations evoked by society.[5] Collaborative art would become more of a lifestyle than a form, enabling the structure to become much more significant, actively introducing the public to the merits of participation. As artists collabora te, so do the viewers, actively interpreting their vision and subjecting it to internal modes of expectation and perception. This cultural dissolution through creative depiction is one of the most essential evolutions within the modern art institution and it will continue to define the structure of future establishments as viewers and artists actively participate in their experience. In looking for examples of this revolution of design, the Museum of Modern Art (MOMA) in New York recognized the modernist movement and integrated Bauhaus-style architecture to become a global symbol for a new and utopian representation of exhibitionism.[6] The ideologies which underlie utopianism in art are a culturally divergent need for connectivism, a variability which can operate both functionally and introspectively, thereby challenging the propensity of acceptance and replacing it with a question of ‘what.’ The revised institution now enjoyed a supple foundation for developing this question into a lifestyle, one in which viewers would embark on an ethereal journey, whether they were immediately aware of it or not, partaking in exhibitions by the very basis of their viewership. The ability to modify both spatial and visual stimuli while integrating an artists unique vision and meaning enabled a cultural dialogue which became much more substantial than that of a sim ple meander through a while cubicle with painted blemishes hung at eye level. Werner (2005) offers a nostalgic perspective of traditional institutions as structures designed to preserve the cultural capital of a rapidly evolving population; and from these conservation tactics, inspire scholarship and educated debate.[7] Yet it was the lack of debate, the limitations which inebriated the artistic community in the modernist era that evolved to awaken these participants during the revolution of postmodernism. Yet there is no evasion of historical context, and the stereotypical cube lingers as prominently as modern structures themselves occupy social import. Yet, whereas the cubist nature of historical institutions continues to pervade popular critical opinion, recognizing the merits of art over the environmental variables, evolutionary thinkers such as Zaha Hadid note that it is the activation of participation within an exhibit which determines the emotional response evoked from the viewer.[8] Should the four walled container be replicated room after room as it is in many scenarios, there is limited participation and a lack of interactivity, therefore, minimizing the relationship between visitor and artist. Similarly, variable angles and limitless perspective can also detract from the art itself, thereby making the institution a structural deviant and overcoming the artistic meaning through gauche architecture. There is a balance between structure and deconstruction in spaces, one which i s not readily intuited and is as important to the merits of the art as the quality of the artist’s medium. Combinative meaning represents the necessary steps taken to ensure that viewers are culturally and visually stimulated in their institutional journey; and as global expansion broadens the scope of participation, the architectural framework plays an intimate role in experiential influence. There is an underlying debate which unfortunately shrouds the merits of institutional participation, relegating their role to that of a corporate philanderer, a by-day street troller seeking monetary reward for singular experiences. By Werner’s (2005) perception, the value basis of the institution itself is founded on the relationship between social net worth and capital economy.[9] Therefore, should the public perceive artworks to be valuable, their readiness with capital backing to support this belief should coordinate with their imputed interests. The museum interprets popular culture, establishes demarcations of perceived representation, and then displays artifacts to support a desirous and discerning visitor base who feels an innate draw towards their now appropriately seeded cultural offering. Yet within this altruistic idealism, there is a limiter inflamed by the nature of the architectural value itself. In order to appropriately valuate a particular artist’s wor k, the externally implied value of the institution should be added to the socially defined valuation. In this way, consideration for structure and aestheticism are coupled with societal and capitalist value structures intimately uniting artist and establishment. The question which is then raised is whether the value of the art or the value of the institution is preponderant, and in which way can anxious critics ascribe a numerical quality to cultural aphorisms? The nature of commodification within the post-modernist society is one in which self-identification through means of lifestyle adaptation becomes greatly enhanced, almost to the point of religious zeal.[10] As museum clientele moved evolved from the elitist bourgeoisie to a much broader base of attendee, defining installations in terms of expectation became a much more difficult task. In continuing the legacy of dominating cultural theory, the curator and his team continue to retain responsibility for influencing exactly what this self-identification entails, parading their perceived values by way of artistic installation. Ruskin and his modernist ideals reminded that society must regulate itself through attention to intrinsic values and prevention of this capability should be undone and disintegrated from the constructs of an appropriately inclined social body.[11] Therefore, in spite of the proclivity towards radicalism, there has always been an assumed need for collectivist theory , from which architectural deviance retains a unique capability for defining the nature of the artistic experience. If the curator is to define identity, then the structure itself defies this definition, instead realigning its mission with that of the viewer, an evolving, variable, and discerning participant in a cultural exchange which continues to linger outside of stringent definition. It is from this understanding that Foster (2002) explores the idea that the institution is as important to art as the art is to the institution.[12] This dissolution of parity into spatially distinctive relationships sustains the nature of consumerism, thereby redirecting interests towards branded influence. The institution is no longer simply a four-walled bleach spot, it is now a faà §ade essential to the perception of art and inclusive of interactivity as well as interpretive guidance. The commodification of society is directly responsible for perception within the artistic institution, and in spite of the merits of traditionalist theory, the idea of construed reality is no longer a marketable brand. Instead, reality becomes a participant just as experience determines cognitive perception. The architectural evolution of the integrated structure thereby initiates each unique introspection and enables a passing collectivism that inspires and challenges while at the same time, repre sents cultural reactivation. Rem Koolhaas (2006) in a recent interview challenged that architecture serves as a balancing point between the past and future, exacting a form of control in a social structure where control was essentially indefinable.[13] His perception of institutional architecture idolizes the modularity of architectural structures, enabling the display and innate motion of artistic endeavors through the translatable nature of the buildings. It is this translation which then questions whether the art can simply be considered a work of the artist or should be reattributed to a collaborative process with the architect. Architectural influence becomes an intimate relationship between space and localization, returning responsibility to the installation specialists, as their placement becomes an essential part of the perceived meaning and cultural dispersion. The ability to manipulate meaning by simply moving a work of art to a different location or juxtaposing it with a contrasting work is a remarkab le power, one which shapes the nature of cultural manipulation in the modern era much more than was allowed under modernist structure. Douglas (1986) sustains this idea that the institution is responsible for generating the blueprint for a collectivist memory, one which is framed in political and social maxims yet comported by means of display and interactivity.[14] There is a framework of mediation which is highlighted by the architectural infrastructure of the art museum; within this collaborative dialogue, visitors are equally challenged and consoled through the principles of display, messaging, and revelation. Remarkably, voyeurism assumes a unique role within the new architecture, evolving to placate the needs of visual stimulation while at the same time establishing an intimacy of experience in which the visitor is unwittingly linked with the architecture and art simultaneously. There is a new collectivism, one which links experience, theory, discussion, and does so within the constructs of what can be considered a corporately moderated exhibition. The installation team in their determination of goals and obje ctives must placate both perceived social values as and evolve their placement to meet strict standards of visual responsibility. Yet the subjective nature of such placement simply evades any available scientific evaluation of its intricacies, as the person who is interpreting a specific piece in the matter of situating is simply intoning their own perception of cultural meaning, thereby imparting this upon all viewers who enter that space. Within this expectation of compliance, there is a unique debate surrounding subjectivism and the responsibility of artistic veneration, yet limited conclusions from which to situate any truly definitive argument. Vidokle (2007) challenged that art in general is an establishment of conditions which are necessary for creative production, therefore undermining any expectation that art could be truly ‘taught’ to a group of desirous students.[15] Spawning from this conclusion, the belief that artistic placement could have a singular dimension is equally as flawed, and thereby challenges the curator to explore both the merits of architectural influence and artistic variables to ensure that a work is portrayed representative of the artist’s expected meaning. Interestingly, this statement alone raises yet another challenge to the merits of meaning in that as placement is subjective, the artist’s vision is subjective, and the visitor’s perception is also subj ective, there is limited objectification which can translate across the broad scope of artistic representation and define the true meaning of any work of art. Integrating the architecture of an institution into the visually provocative nature of art offers a socially collaborative incidence of inspiration, one which enables curator, artist, and viewer to coalesce, bringing singular, and remarkable insight to light upon a unique cultural connection within the museum’s walls. In considering the merits of other forms of artistic representation, such as those which are take out of the four walled structure and placed in public view, there are similar variables which determine the architecture of the natural environment and assist in determining the unique meaning of the piece in relationship to its placement. â€Å"The value of material representation was not self-evident at the outset and that like all inventions; material representation was contingent upon, coherent with, and dialectically related to the contemporaneous neurological, social, technological, and ideational context.†[16] When a particular subject is placed within public view, there are an infinite number of variables which can influence perception, inclusive but not limited to, weather, natural environment, crowd flow, and political climate. If one were to view Rachael Whitread’s water tower on a clouded day with internal angst reminiscent of Joan of Arc on her deathbed, the pe rception of clarity and purpose might be obscured by these subjective sentiments. Therefore, there is a recognition that art must be interpreted through the constructs of internally generated, experientially driven, conditions in order to ensure that its palpability resonates with each unique viewer. As art is extracted from the institution, the institution adjusts to become the environment. This evolution proffers a unique vision of globalized community, as placing out of context representations within unique settings, such as Antony Gormley’s ‘another place’ at various stages of drown on any foreign shoreline, enables a broad range of viewers to explore their personal understanding of such figures without the storyline or scripted meaning which might be readily available in a museum. From these arguments spawns the constructs of a new dimension in art appreciation, one which undermines any perceived notion of institution, and instead places the idea of institution in the hands of the viewer. The relationship between art and the institutional architecture is one of symbiosis, a collusion of cultural inoculation from which there is one surviving beneficiary, the museum, as capital rewards are disguised as essential culture-needy pittances. Bourdieu and Darbel (1992) corroborate that the true function of the museum is to reinforce cultural brotherhood in the form of sacristy.[17] Yet there is another responsibility which has evolved over the past decade, one which evokes a sense of internal turmoil from the institutional oversight committee, but retains public appreciation when implemented within an appropriate scope. In spite of the need for capitalistic sustenance, the museum’s responsibility has yet to alter from its original path of cultural enlightenment and in turn, collectivist assimilation. No longer must the comodification of society undermine the need for self-identity, as identity lingers within the institutional halls, defined by subjectivism and interpreted internally, in spite of architecture or obscure efforts at creative placement. To activate internal modes of observation within a viewer corrupted by a society that bombards with constant stimuli requires a pairing of both architectural extravagance and artistic uniqueness. Whereas artists may endeavor to impart meaning to their viewer through images or representations, the architect engenders a sense of being and belonging through their hallways and trusses and archways which is entirely collaborative and evidentiary of the current social clime. There is a discussion which evolves from this argument as to the relationship between space and structure. In consideration for the nature of art, a connectivity which can be easily broken by distraction or unforeseen variables, could it be that architecture has exceeded its boundaries by exploding in modern institutions on such a grandiose scale? Adorno (1992) addressed this issue from the standpoint of artistic autonomy and the realignment of the new sociopolitical debate with that of historical responsibility. By his definition, Adorno recognizes that the committed works of the political debater will often assume a role of expectation, a maxim of necessity which requires that the viewer also appreciate a similar political viewpoint.[18] Yet if representation is subjective, then could viewership also take on subjective qualities? The reality is that autonomy in art is the recognition that interpretation is variable, divergent, and oftentimes completely distant from original meaning . Therefore, given the nature of architecture, could the institutional structure itself be considered an autonomous representation of current cultural and social ideologies? The reality is that the institution is no longer the combatant in the artistic community, it is the internalization of prescribed commodification which undermines the capabilities of need voyeurs. Their assumptions and wrongfully inspired intuition becomes nothing more than a derivative of the blueprint which has been established by a desensitized society corrupted by mass media and broad scale image distribution. Appreciation for the merits of a particular work of art becomes intimately related to internally generated necessity, and participants should therefore embrace the inclusion of architectural drama and aesthetic into this equation. As the curators of MOMA can attest, the affected state of voyeurism in conjunction with eccentric architecture or visually stimulating structures can lead critics to challenge the capacity for viewers to truly appreciate their attendance objective, the art.[19] As the grand atrium is a vast and spacious area, ripe with distractions ranging from marbled flooring to elevators, visual stimulation is easily reduced to a combinative effort, the capable observer environmentally and artistically influenced simultaneously. Yet, there is a differentiation which must be addressed regarding what is gauche over-stimulation or simply installed experience. In the case of MOMA, the exterior distractions are minimal when considering the inspiring nature of the artistic stimuli. Wallach characterizes it as a ‘spectacularized’ space, one which is designed with ‘free-floating intensity’ which will both overwhelm but stimulate reverential appreciation.[20] The redefinition of s pace over the past decades is a function of necessity as well as a creative interpretation on the part of the architect and his team. Introducing variable structures into the social structure by means of architectural ingenuity furthers the propagation of art, enticing attendees and allowing corporate overseers to compete for urban space with a new breed of remarkable architecture. Artist Martin Kemp, in a recent interview, noted that there has been an adjustment to the artistic display process over the past decades, one in which the viewer is now often integrated into the artists meaning by way of publication or installation aids.[21] His view is that juxtaposition of conflicting or complementary art forms within a particular installation offer the viewer visual stimulation otherwise unappreciable given the distance between particular works. It is within this new age ideology that the foundations of the future of the modern art museum are formed, as contrast and collaboration are two fundamental visual aspects within the scope of institutions that can be manipulated and imparted to an unsuspecting viewer. Placing a renaissance painting next to one from the 1980’s offers the remarkable ability to explore socio-cultural ideals across generations and historical legacies. Similarly, the evolving architecture of the institution allows the placement of modern zeal next to that of historic propriety. Therefore, as Kemp challenges that contrast is the wave of the future, the structural qualities of museums across the globe are already forming similar opinions for an unwitting viewer. Corporate influence over this perceived disconnect will continue to establish and evoke remarkable nuance with limited understanding of their participation in the creative definition of modern society. While many critics may challenge that they are absolutely sure of their manipulation of cultural distribution, there is an inability to predict the nature of the art/viewer relationship which challenges any preconception of response. In truth, the viewer response should be an intricate part of the artistic process, and through study and further understanding, recognition of qualifying contrast can assist in defining the future of artistic creation. Zaha Hadid in her recent interview with Hans Ulrich Obrist recognizes the extremely pivotal role which the museum architecture plays in terms of exhibitionism and the structural variables which can directly influence the viewer and their journey through a particular installation.[22] Most importantly, her perception of relationship is an essential development within the modern architectural environment, as experiential voyeurism becomes a foundation for artistic appreciation. Her vision likens institutional architecture to designing a laboratory within which both critic and artist can dialogue, actively partaking in a conversation of perception through which ideas can be developed, disintegrated, and resurrected, drastically shaping the future of artistic endeavor. If each installation is considered just that, an experiment, there is substantial opportunity for an extremely collaborative process, one in which viewer insights shape the future of institutions. Benjamin (2006) challenge d that authenticity in art is a form of transmission which is defined by physical duration and historical testimony.[23] Yet when testimony is directly linked to the nature of subjective relevance, in that a foreign viewer will not experience the political fire of a native who witnessed the collapse of the Berlin Wall, and physical duration is limited by the social and institutional variables, there can be no perceived authenticity in art. Benjamin’s interpretation is not errant, but simply too narrow in scope to identify with a modern era of intensified visual acumen. There is a dramatic shift towards remarkableness, one which is engendered with the cultural and social traits of a melting pot, not simply those of unique social or ethnic classes. Exhibitionism, as recognized by Hadid, is becoming a tool of unification, and in this way, will serve as a mode of global collaboration within the laboratory of the institution. In order to fully explore the nature of the institution in the modern era, it becomes important to note the evolution of the critic, and more importantly, those who are responsible for determining the future of artistic endeavors. Montmann (2006) challenges the evolution of the art institutions a direct result of a power shift from the traditional bourgeoisie and their monopolization of socially legitimized ideologies to a function of populist mandate, controlled by a homogenized corporate vision.[24] This evolution is a direct result of the fragmented nature of popular society as the stratification which once divided aristocrat and peasant is no longer relevant as globalized consumerism now radically changes the fleeting voyeurism which so defined the historical role of the museum and its definitive influence. Sennett (2006) reminds that the habitual nature of the past has been abandoned for selective and subjective interpretation of interactions within a limited time frame.[25] The reby, the institution itself is charged with meeting the needs of a niche based audience, one with conflicting perceptions, needs, and demands, and one which strategically navigates within a broadening geographical sphere to imbue their own theories within the minds of other nomadic voyeurs. Therefore, as institutional criticism evolves to encompass the architectural merits of a particular museum, the fleeting visitors who frequent its doorways are challenged to appropriate meaning from a similarly fleeting interpretation by an overly critical eye. The nature of architecture within the institution is one which should entice and embrace its visitors, not incite critical contempt and irascible scripting. Yet, given the nature of a society no longer defined by the bourgeoisie minority, the much more vocal public base will continue to evoke a sense of dread each time a change enters the artistic community. Across the globe, modern museums are taking note of architectural merits. Oil wealthy countries such as the United Arab Emirates are paving the way for spectacular structures in exotic locations who offer collections of the world’s greatest artists throughout the annals of history. This encapsulation beneath the expectation of destination travel presents a unique focal point for the museums of the future as community is no longer defined in terms of geographic localization. As art evolves to encompass the nature of global humanity, the subjective nature of viewers equalizes with this radical adjustment, appreciating the socio-political evolution of artistic heroes and the institutions which house their work. The expansion of these destination facilities continues to evolve towards corporate ownership and patronage yet the relationship between viewer and art form cannot be dissolved. Tactically, as these conglomerates actively purchase diverse installations for their exhibits, the ability to contrast a broad range of subjects within a singular house of creativity is expanded, thereby verifying the merits of architectural evolution. While the future of participants in the modern museum may remain uncertain given the nature of electronic distribution, the necessity for such structures will remain a natural part of social evolution. The connectivity inspired by architectural and artistic creativity incites a sense of community which, when explored from a global perspective, is all the more necessitated in this modern era. Bibliography Adorno, Theodor. â€Å"Art, Autonomy and Mass Culture.† In Art in Modern Culture: An Anthology of Critical Texts, eds. Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, 74-79. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992. Benjamin, Walter. Walter Benjamin: Selected Writings, Vol. 3. London: Belknap, 2006. Bourdieu, Pierre; Darbel, Alain. â€Å"The Love of Art.† In Art in Modern Culture: An Anthology of Critical Texts, eds. Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, 174-180. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992. Douglas, Mary. How Institutions Think. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. Foster, Hal. Design and Crime and other Diatribes. London: Verso, 2002. Giddens, Anthony. â€Å"Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age.† In Art in Modern Culture: An Anthology of Critical Texts, eds. Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris, 17-22. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 1992. Obrist, Hans Ulrich. Rem Koolhaas. Ehrenstr: Verlad der Buchhandlung Walther Konig, Koln, 2006. Obrist, Hans Ulrich. Zaha Hadid. Ehrenstr: Verlad der Buchhandlung Walther Konig, Koln, 2007. Raney, Karen. Art in Question. London: Continuum, 2003. Montmann, Nina. â€Å"Art and its Institutions.† In Montmann, Nina, ed. Art and its Institutions: Current Conflicts, Critique and Collaborations, ed. Nina Montmann, 8-17. London: Black Dog Publishing, 2006. Sennett, Richard. The Culture of the New Capitalism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. Vidokle, Anton. â€Å"Exhibition as School in a Divided City,† In Taking the Matter Into Common Hands, eds. J

THE SKY IS GRAY Essay -- essays research papers

Life Changing Journeys: â€Å"The Sky is Gray†, â€Å"Blue Winds Dancing† and â€Å"The Hammon and the Beans† In the three short stories that we have read, the main characters take life-changing journeys. As we continue to read about these stories we find James in The Sky is Gray, the Native American from Blue Winds Dancing and Chonita in the Hammon and the Beans have traveled three separate roads, allowing us to view their journeys in three different ways. James in â€Å"The Sky is Gray† shows a black male growing up in a home without a father figure present learns the life lesson of poverty yet proud. The Native American in â€Å"Blue Winds Dancing† deals with belonging to the Native American world and the â€Å"white man’s world† while truly identifying himself. Chonita in the â€Å"Hammon and the Beans† deals with pov...

Anthropology or Sociology Essay

In the social sciences of sociology and cultural anthropology, researchers have developed their own unique style or research and investigational techniques. While between these fields some techniques are similar, there are some differences. Some differences occur with the philosophical reasons certain techniques are used. In the field of sociology researchers strive to understand social situations and to discover repeating patterns in society (Tischler, p.4, 2007). Two methods that sociologists use are direct observation and survey research. Direct observation involves first hand observations and obtaining information from knowledgeable informants of the group that is being studied. Survey research involves the collection and analysis of information gathered through interviews and questionnaires. While there are different reasons and circumstances to use different research methods in the data collection process, in the field of sociology survey research does have some benefits. In earlier years the construction and administration of surveys, and statistical methods for tabulating and interpreting their results, were widely regarded as the major sociological research technique (MSN Encarta, 2009). This allows researchers to study populations on a broader scope than using direct observation. It also enables the researcher to gather information on a population in a more efficient manner than some other methods. The results from surveys give a look into a groups perspective as a whole rather than individualized thoughts and opinions that can differ greatly even in small populations. Although sociology is similar to cultural anthropology in that they both study human behavior, researchers of cultural anthropology study such topics as how people make their living, how people interact with each other, what beliefs people hold, and what institutions organize people in a society (MSN Encarta, 2009). They also use a more direct method to gather data. Traditionally, much anthropological research involves long-term, direct observation of and participation in the life of another culture which is known as participant observation (MSN Encarta, 2009). This usually involves the researcher immersing themselves in the culture and living with the  people they are studying. Another method employed by cultural anthropologists is human ecology, which is the study of how cultures interact with their natural environment. Anthropologists may collect large amounts of data about features of a cultures environment, such as types of plants and animals, the chemical and nutritional properties of medicines and foods, and climate patterns (MSN Encarta, 2009). This information can help researcher understand certain characteristics of a peoples culture. While both of these fields of study involve studying people the methods used are different. They have different purposes in the collection of data. Sociologists mainly study social situations and use less of a direct approach in their research. Cultural anthologists study the culture as a whole and any influencing factors. Their use of cultural immersion and the study of the natural environment surrounding a particular culture are different from a sociologists approach. Despite these differences the goals to better understand cultures and societies is still the common thread that is shared between both. References â€Å"Anthropology,† Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia 2009. Retrieved from May 25, 2009 fromhttp://encarta.msn.com  © 1997-2009 Microsoft Corporation. â€Å"Sociology,† Microsoft ® Encarta ® Online Encyclopedia 2009. Retrieved May 25, 2009 fromhttp://encarta.msn.com  © 1997-2009 Microsoft Corporation. Tischler, Henry. 2007. Introduction to Sociology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Intersectionality

Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality Fall 2010 WGST 304/SOCY 304/ POLI 305/AFRO 398R Section 001 Meeting Times: TTH 9:30-10:45AM Location:Currell College 203 Instructor: Dr. Sharon Lee White Phone: 777-4007(Please leave message) E-Mail: [email  protected] sc. edu Office Hours: By appointment only Course Description: This multidisciplinary course is designed to explore historical and contemporary aspects of race, social class, gender, and sexuality.Focusing on the intersection of race, class, gender and sexual orientation, this course will examine how the confluence of these identities shape the lives of individuals, institutions, and society as a whole. We will also explore the various dimensions of privilege, stratification, and oppression and resistance as well as racism, sexism, classism, heterosexism and the overall systemic nature of these and other â€Å"isms. † Course Objectives/Learning Outcomes: 1. Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the interse ction of race, social class, gender, and sexual orientation. . Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of how the confluence of the above identities yield complex consequences for individuals, institutions, and society as a whole. 3. Students should be able to discuss the theories about the origins of these intersections and the structures and forces that maintain them and perpetuate their existence. 4. Students will demonstrate understanding of diversity by gender, race, social class, and sexuality. Required Texts: 1. David M.Newman, Identities & Inequalities: Exploring the Intersection of Race, Class Gender, and Sexuality, (McGraw Hill, 2007). Available at the Russell House Bookstore 2. Articles Provided by the Instructor (Posted on Blackboard) 3. Films will be shown throughout the semester to compliment the readings and/or illustrate the themes discussed in lectures and readings. Course Requirements and Grading Scale: |Assignments |Total Points | |Four (4) Exams.E ach Exam will count 100 points |400 | |1 Reflection/Reaction Paper* |100 | |Final Writing Assignment* |100 | |Final Exam |100 | |TOTAL |700 | *See attachment to Syllabus Your Final Grade will be Determined as Follows: Total Points |Numerical Grade |Letter Grade | |662-700 |95-100 |A | |627-661 |90-94 |B+ | |592-626 |85-89 |B | |557-591 |80-84 |C+ | |522-556 |75-79 |C | |487-421 |70-74 |D+ | |452-486 |65-69 |D | |451 and below |64 and below |F | Attendance and other Responsibilities: This is a collaborative class with emphasis on discussion. Participation and attendance are essential if we are to be productive. With this in mind, please be reminded that University policy allows me to drop your course grade by one letter or more if you miss more than 10% (3 for TTH) of our scheduled class meetings and fail you for missing more that 25% (7 for TTH).There is no difference between an â€Å"excused† and â€Å"unexcused† absence, except in extenuating circumstances. For a mor e complete explanation, please refer to The College of Arts and Sciences Undergraduate Student Bulletin. †¢ I will send all written communications to students through Blackboard. Please make sure that you check it regularly. †¢ It is your responsibility to keep up with readings and assignments if you are absent. Please do not ask me for discussion notes that you missed because of absence or tardiness. You may, however, ask me to clarify anything that you did not understand from any of the lectures. I strongly suggest that you get to know and exchange contact information with your classmates. All assignments are due at the beginning of the class on the due date. I will not accept late assignments. †¢ No make-up exams will be given. They will be posted to Blackboard for at least three (3) days. †¢ Please be advised that cell phones, I-pods, Mp3 Players, and other electronic devices should be turned off during class. You may use a computer to take notes, however, if you are observed surfing the net, checking e-mail, etc. , you will be asked to leave and be marked absent for the day. Likewise, if you are caught text-messaging, or reading materials not related to this class (newspapers, magazines, etc. ) you will be asked to leave and be marked absent. Students with disabilities and/or special needs should notify me immediately for assistance with any necessary arrangements and/or accommodations †¢ All students are expected to follow the Carolina Creed. Plagiarism will not be tolerated. If you are caught cheating or plagiarizing, you will receive an F for the course. Please read your Carolina Community Bulletin for the definition and more information on plagiarism. A Special Note: Some materials that we cover in this class may challenge your personal belief and may be quite different from what you or I believe. Due to the sensitive nature of some of the topics, it is important that we try to remain objective.Most importantly, it is my inten t to make this class a â€Å"safe space† for respectful self-expression and sometimes you or your classmates may share personal information pertaining to our discussion. I ask that we keep such disclosures confidential. Course Schedule for WGST 304/SOCY 304/ POLI 305/AFRO 398R Fall 2010 *Please be advised that I reserve the right to alter the syllabus at anytime during the semester. If I find it necessary to do so, I will make an effort to give you reasonable notice of the changes. Please come to class prepared to discuss readings on the assigned date/day

16 Manuscript Format Guidelines

16 Manuscript Format Guidelines 16 Manuscript Format Guidelines 16 Manuscript Format Guidelines By Simon Kewin If you submit manuscripts to publishers or agents, you’ve probably come across the demand that you use â€Å"standard manuscript format† (or â€Å"SMF†) for your submissions. However, it isn’t always spelled out what this actually means. Generally speaking, the term indicates that you should format your document with the following guidelines in mind: Type your document, don’t write it. Use a single, clear font, 12 point size. The best to use is Courier or Courier New. At the very least, ensure you use a 12 point, serif font and not something like Arial. Use clear black text on a white background. If you are printing out your submission (rather than submitting it electronically), use good quality plain white paper and print on only one side of each sheet. Include your name and contact information at the top left of the first page. Put an accurate word count at the top right. Put the title half-way down the page, centred, with â€Å"by Your Name† underneath. Start the story beneath that. If you write under a pseudonym, put that beneath the title but your real name in the top left of the first page. Put your name, story title and the page number as a right-justified header on every subsequent page, in the format Name/Title/Page Number. Generally, you can also just use a key word from your title and not repeat the whole thing on each page. Left-justify your paragraphs. Right margins should be â€Å"ragged†. Ensure there is at least a 1 inch (2 centimetre) margin all the way around your text. This is to allow annotation to be written onto a printed copy. Use double spacing for all your text. Don’t insert extra lines between your paragraphs. Indent the first line of each paragraph by about 1/2 inch (1 centimetre). If you want to indicate a blank line, place a blank line, then a line with the # character in the middle of it, then another blank line. Don’t use bold or italic fonts or any other unusual formatting. To emphasise a piece of text you should underline it. Put the word â€Å"End† after your text, centred on its own line. If you are submitting on paper, don’t staple your pages together. Package them up well so that they won’t get damaged and send them off. It’s always worth checking the exact requirements of any market you submit to, but if they don’t specify any formatting requirements, or just say â€Å"standard manuscript format†, follow these guidelines. This will make a good impression and help mark you out as a serious, professional writer. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Fiction Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:When to Capitalize Animal and Plant NamesEnglish Grammar 101: Verb MoodPractice or Practise?

Michael Graves essays

Michael Graves essays Michael Graves, born the summer or 1934 in Indianapolis, knew he wanted to be an artist by the age of six. Encouraged by his mother to seek a more practical career, Graves choose architecture. After studying at the University of Connecticut, he got his master's degree at Harvard University. After finishing school in 1959, he moved to New York City where he worked at the office of George Nelson. While working in New York, Graves received a fellowship to study at American Academy in Rome, Italy. Graves studied the classical architecture, which inspires much of his work. It was his time in Rome that allowed him to make the connection between ancient and modern architecture. In 1962, Graves started teaching architecture at Princeton University. He designed buildings upon commission, but not until 1977 did his work become nationally know. Graves received a commission for a cultural center spanning the Red River on the Minnesota/North Dakota border. Although lack of funding never allowed his design to be built, he gained a lot of attention. Graves' next project, the Portland Building, is a fifteen story postmodernist skyscraper. It can be defined this way because of its unusual use of color. There is also a reference to Greek columns on the facade of the building. As more commissions followed, Graves began his own design studio in Princeton. As a privileged member of the designers at this studio, I can witness the process of Graves' design. His firm is split into teams of designers. There are the interior and architectural designers in one building and the industrial designers in a separate studio. Michael and the team leaders primarily plan each project out. The teams then develop the project. Computer drawings are then sent to the modelers and painters. The atmosphere at the Graves studio is extremely laid back, but professional. For example there are several dogs roaming around the studios, but the conference rooms double as displ...

How Many Volunteer Hours Do You Need for College

How Many Volunteer Hours Do You Need for College SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Community service is one of the most popular extracurricular activities for high school students to do in their free time. There are hundreds of ways that high school students can get involved in their communities. There is really something out there for everyone, no matter what your personal interests are! Admissions officers also love to see community service on college applications. Having community service experience means you're passionate about making a difference in the world and are ready to take action and be involved. But how many community service hours for college do you actually need in order to make sure your contribution is â€Å"good enough† for admissions officers? Is there a certain numberof hours that you need for different schools? Read on to find out! Do You Need to Complete a CertainNumberof Volunteer Hours for College? As a rough guideline, anything between 50 and 200 hours is going to sound impressive and show that you have made a commitment.However, once you get above 200 hours, you should start to consider if your free time could be better spent doing something else. Unfortunately, there is no one magic number of community service hours that is going to be your golden ticket into college. Grades and test scores will always come first. Though community service work can showcase an aspect of your personality and make admission officers see you as a good citizen and leader, it isn’t going to guarantee admission on its own. Even if youhave spent 500+ hours on volunteering, admissions officers won'thold spots open for you based just on that. You still need to be the full package. So treat volunteer work as you would any other extracurricular activity. If this is what you choose to do with your time, make sure that it counts. Fortunately, a recent study by DoSomething.org will help you to do just that. They asked admissions officers from 33 of the top 50 colleges for guidance on how they judge community service as an extracurricular activity. Their answers are a great guide towhat admissions officers are actually thinking when they see your community service hours on your application. You may be surprised to learn thatthe number of hours you spend doing community service is notthe most important focus. In fact, most admissions officers say thatthey care more about what you have done, why you are doing it, and what you are getting out of it. As long as you can adequately explain these things, they don’t care as much about the number of hours you spent doing it. Two-thirdsof college admission officers say that it’s not possible to have too many community service hours. As long as it’s not affecting your grades or other parts of your life, you can volunteer to your heart’s content. But the opposite is also true. As long as you have made a valuable contribution that you can explain, most admissions officers are probably not going to discount community service work that you have done just because you haven’t spent enough hours doing it. How Should You Allocate Your Volunteer Hours? So if your goal is 50-200 hours, how should you spend that time? In general, it'seasier and takes fewer hours to havean impact if you keep volunteering for the same project, instead of spreading yourself across several different projects. Try to find a project that you can spendat least fifty hours on.If you have much less than this, most admissions officers will not be convinced that you have dedicated enough time to really be making a difference. Be intelligent about how you spend your free time if you're going to dedicate more hours. However, once you get above 200 hours, you should start to consider if your free time could be better spent doing something else. At the end of the day, 500 hoursis not going to seem that much more impressive than 200 hours,and those are hours that probably couldbebetterspent elsewhere, such as on other extracurriculars, getting top grades, or test prep. If the numberof hours you spent doing community service isn't the most important thing that admissions officers are looking for, then what DO they want to see in your community service? What Do Admissions Officers Want to See in Volunteer Work? There are three main qualities that you should be showing inyourcommunity service work: commitment, passion, and leadership.The best students will also use their community service experience as an opportunity forreflection. #1: Commitment You can show commitment by being involved in your chosen project over a long period of time. In the DoSomething study, 70% of admissions officers said they would prefer to see long-term dedication to an unglamorous cause such as local service work instead of a short-term commitment to something flashy like volunteering abroad. Furthermore, 60% of admissions officers would prefer to see students who have made a commitment to just one cause over their high school careers. Why? They're more interested in seeing what you can accomplish when you're dedicated and put your mind to it than they are by a longer list of volunteer activities. One officer noted,â€Å"Longevity and dedication are traits necessary for collegiate success.† Long-term commitment shows passion and dedication. Over 60% of admissions officers say that they would like to see service that goes back to the beginning of high school, and 15% more say that the service commitment should start before high school. But what really matters is that you have been volunteeringfor a long enough time that you have actually made a difference in the community and your own development as well. #2: Passion To showpassion, doa community service activity thatrelates to something thatyou're already interested inor care deeply about. If you have a certain interest, community service can be a great way to explore it. For example, if you're passionate about animals, you could consider volunteering at an animal shelter. As mentioned above, long-term involvement is important. Students who already care about a cause are more likely to make a long-term commitment. Working in an area you care about also shows thatyou can take action to improve things where you see a need, which is a great trait that admission officers look for. Also, the more you can talk about why you care about a cause, the more sincere you will seem in your efforts. #3: Leadership You can show your leadership skills by managing others and being in charge during an event or activity. You can also show leadership by being responsible for motivating others to succeed. As with any extracurricular, schools are interested to see how you've taken charge and made your extracurricular activity better than you found it.Colleges want to admit people who will change the world, and leaders have a better chance of doing this.Over 50% of admissions officers thought that having a founding or leading role in your volunteer work was the most important quality that you could show them. #4: Reflection The best students who have done community service work will also be able toreflect on how their work has made a difference, both to others and to themselves. Students should ask themselves if their community service projects have actually made a positive contribution to society. After all, that is the point of community service. Successful community service can be a lot trickier to gauge than success in other extracurriculars. Ask yourself if you have accomplished what you set out to do and who is better off because of your work. Also, check to see thatyou understand whythe work you've done is important and how you've made an impact. Students who can reflect on these aspects are more likely to impress admissions officers because theyshow that they are thoughtful and have dedicated themselves for sincere reasons – not just to have something to list on their resume. Ask yourself, have you spent enough time doing community servicethat you have actually made a difference?If you just showed up and did some hours for the sake of a better resume, admissions officers won't be impressed. Finally, what kind of experience have you gained? In particular, admissions officers are looking for leadership experience, as mentioned above. However, they're also interested instudents who have become more mature and developed in other ways as a result of their community service. If your service work has made you more empathetic, for example, this would also be a greatthing to write about. Students who can reflect on these aspects are more likely to impress admissions officers becausethey canshow that they did community servicefor sincere reasons – not just to have something to list on their resume. Want to build the best possible college application? We can help. PrepScholar Admissions is the world's best admissions consulting service. We combine world-class admissions counselors with our data-driven, proprietary admissions strategies. We've overseen thousands of students get into their top choice schools, from state colleges to the Ivy League. We know what kinds of students colleges want to admit. We want to get you admitted to your dream schools. Learn more about PrepScholar Admissions to maximize your chance of getting in. What Do Admissions Officers NotWant to See? Many students willdo community service work for the wrong reasons - and it willshow. Admissions officers are always on the lookout for students who volunteer just to fulfill a quota. If you talk about your experience in terms of hours instead of causes and accomplishments, this can be a red flag. Words like â€Å"required† and â€Å"mandatory† are also red flags for admissions officers. If community service was required by your high school, even if you did productive and meaningful work, don't describe it in a way that makes it sound like you were forced to do it. This can make admissions officers feel you hada negative relationship with the work you accomplished and only did it because you had to. If it’s obvious that you are only doing community service work so that you can list it on your application, admissions officers would prefer that you leave it out. As with any other extracurricular activity, you should only list it if it’s beensignificant to your development. The Bottom Line Though all extracurriculars are theoretically equal, I would still recommend that you have some typeof community service on your application if you have the means to do so. This is especially important when applying to top schools. Try to have a project that you have committed at least 50 hours to.If you want community service to be your main extracurricular activity, try to dedicate even more time over several years. Though most officers say that all activities are totally equal and can show the same traits, some admissions officers for top schools say that community service can be mostconspicuous on an application if it'scompletelyabsent. This is especially true in applications for the most competitive schools, where most students will have done some volunteer work. However, also keep in mind that community service is not mandatory, especially if you have a good reason for not having done it.Almost 100% of officers say that there are many ways that you can show you are a good citizen and leader that DON’T involve community service. This can be accomplished through other extracurriculars, work experience, or helping out your family if that is what your personal circumstances require. What's Next? If you need some inspiration, check out our list of 129 community service activities that you can try. Want to find your own project? Here are the 9 best places to do community service. Not sure that community service is worth your time? Learn about some of the ways that community service can benefit you. Did you know that doing community service can help you pay for college?Check out our list of community service scholarships that you can win! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Role of Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Role of Economics - Essay Example According to Schumacher, economics plays a central role in determining as well as setting the criteria that is used to determine what is economic or not. There are many factors that are involved when one talks about the economy of a given region. Therefore, economists will be in place to determine how the factors can be brought together to ensure that there is maximum production or the returns that are realized are at the peak. An economist will therefore be given the role of deciding whether a given idea or investment is economic or uneconomic. This is done by weighing the inputs that need to be put and the returns that are to be realized after the idea has been actualized. Schumacher (1973) notes that when an economist makes the verdict above the questions that arise are on the criteria that was used to make the final verdict. This should therefore be explainable by the economist to a layman or another individual who does not have a sound understanding of the subject. On top of tha t people are interested in understanding how the verdict means. Can one continue with the investment or should they halt it at the grounds? Are there any options that can be adopted and make the idea work? All these need to be addressed by the economist. Schumacher goes back in history to bring the concept of professorship which was founded for political economy at Oxford about 190 years ago. He cites Edward Copleston who was among the people unhappy about the introduction of a science into the curriculum .

Impacts of Media Globalization in America Essay

Impacts of Media Globalization in America - Essay Example It is due to this support that the impacts of media globalization have been inevitable. The constituent view of which media globalization extended its effect from seamless imperialism to increasing cultural, economic, and national identity is duly undeniable (Barlow, & Mills, 2009:57). Well, while there is lack of consensus as to whether media globalization is a vital concept to portray national identity, let us focus on growing interdependence between media and all other key players in a country’s globalization. Recently, because of expansion of modernization of media globalization on a national scale, growth at cultural, political, and social levels is changing the national identity making the study of media globalization an important topic of study in communication. Media globalization is a result of new and advanced mass media and communication technology. It is also a prerequisite and a catalyst for all other forms of national globalization. Most Americans express a feeli ng that, they ought to enjoy the benefits of media globalization like global communication, rather than terrifying and attempting to evade the consequences that ironically include deterrence to freedom of expression and speech. Media globalization impacts will never cease. ... Mobile technology in this case is serving a great deal in moving the nation’s economy while reducing the cost of mobility and time at the same time. Media globalization has seen people use internet to improve their health or save lives. For example, a doctor in USA is able to send an x-ray to another more senior doctor in China or India for a second opinion and have it within a matter of hours. Therefore, media globalization is advancing health standards of American citizens. Increased global media interactions in America has and will continue assisting millions of American citizens to use Windows-powered PC in becoming authors of their own content in digital form meaning that they can share content widely and in far distances. Therefore, it is evident that media has the power to cross and bridge cultural gaps, bring people closer to one another and generally make our lives more convenient like never before. The presence of worldwide web provides us with endless quantities of information, knowledge, and ability to receive insights. Not before, accessing information readily does not imply that we are best informed! Media globalization has indeed positively influenced America as it has aided production and distribution. The rise of global media witnessed the formation of transnational corporations that led to effective cost and lucrative market force. This contributed to world trade that created market for media globalization through global capitalism using media to disburse messages to consumers globally. This helped America with money power through media globalization. While the interests of finance, most people regard media globalization in relation to culture and their systems. This has made it possible for United States to export media content

Theoretical and Empirical Interest in World Cities Essay

Theoretical and Empirical Interest in World Cities - Essay Example However, the fact remains that the concept of a ‘world city’ is not so simple as this. Often referred to as ‘global city’ or sometimes as ‘alpha city’, a world city happens to be a very significant and important node point in the entire system of global economy. It has been a subject of researchers and empirical studies since long and is one of the most researched areas in the field of urban studies. Geography and urban studies are what the concept of world cities originates from, while globalization is the basis of this concept, considering the fact that the idea of globalization takes into account the hierarchy of the geographic locales in respect of importance to the operation of the global system. It is not that a concept is formed in a day, especially when it concerns as vast an idea as ‘global/world city’. The development of the concept of world cities may not be as old as the global cities themselves. Again, it has also to be kept in mind that the idea of a world city is not just like another of the thousand novel concepts that should better be described as the byproducts of globalization in the modern age. The development of the concept of a world city or a global city has quite a long and rich history. The volume of research works by scholars in all countries in the world and the growing interest in the concept of world city testify to its immense importance in the world of empirical studies. The purpose of this paper is to explore and discuss the factors related to the development of the concept of a world city and also to discuss the contemporary research that provides new insights into the hierarchy of world cities. Before we start exploring the development of the concept of a world city, we have to understand that development of the general ideas about a world city and the development of empirical interests in the concept of world/global cities are not the same.  

Part of a Marketing Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Part of a Marketing Plan - Assignment Example In addition to this a SWOT analysis has also been undertaken to analyze the relative areas of strengths and weakness of the company as well as its areas of opportunities and threats. Finally the study concludes with the formulation of a set of SMART objectives that can help the company generate sustainable competitive advantage in the turbulent business environment. The present era of globalization has created a scenario of intense competition among the market players to grab a share of the market. The present study would analyze the business strategy of an Australian Trans National company with regards to the strategic aspects pertaining to business expansion. The organization selected for the study is Foster’s Group Ltd that is a multinational firm based in Australia. Foster’s is a company that is engaged in the manufacture and sale of beer and soft drinks. The company mainly concentrates on its brewing business and is known for being a reputed brand across the world for its quality and perception of the brand. The company since its inception in 1888 has presently grown to about 2300 employees alone in Australia having a dedicated presence in about 45 different nations across the globe. The company is also listed on the bourses of Australian Stock exchanges (Foster’s Group, 2011). Environment plays a crucial role in the functioning and sustainability of any business organization. The mission of Foster’s group is to promote global enjoyment and fun (Funding Universe, n.d.). In this regard the company has a business model that enables in the manufacture and sale of quality beverages with a huge portfolio spanning across varied tastes. The company also has dedicated presence across nations that helps generate a fulfillment of the objectives and mission of the company on a global scale. (Fosters Group-a, n.d.). In addition to beer the company also manufactures other alcoholic and

The Interpretation of Umbrella Clause in Investment Treaties Essay

The Interpretation of Umbrella Clause in Investment Treaties - Essay Example However, umbrella clause has been widely debated in academic discussions and arbitral practices during the recent years4. Commentators have illustrated the argument in terms of interpretation the umbrella clause in investment treaties that derived from different tribunals in order to know whether breaching contractual obligations amount to violating treaty obligations. Within the context of this argument, tribunals will be able to know if they have the jurisdiction to hear claims arising from an alleged investment contract breach. This essay aims to analyse the interpretation of umbrella clause in investment treaties. In the subsequent part of this paper first, the definition of umbrella clause has been provided according to some commentators, and different formulations of the umbrella terms have also been included in the part. Subsequent to that, the background of umbrella clause is accounted for. ... 1. Definition of Umbrella Clause Some authors and commentators tried during the last decade to explain the meaning of umbrella clause. Dolzer and Schreuer represented it as â€Å"a provision in an investment protection treaty that guarantees the observation of obligations assumed by the host state vis-a-vis the investor†.5 Moreover, Gallagher and Shan introduced the umbrella clause by revealing that the clause is taken its name from its main objective namely in order to â€Å"oblige the host state to observe any commitments it has entered into with regard to foreign investors†.6 Some also assume that the umbrella clause could be extended to beyond what it created for, as F.A. Mann stated that the umbrella clause â€Å"is a provision of particular importance in that it protects the investor against any interference with his contractual rights, whether it results from a mere breach of contract or legislative or administrative act†.7 As a matter of fact, umbrella cl ause is also known as ‘mirror effect’, ‘pacta sunt servanda clause’, ‘parallel effect’, ‘elevator’, ‘respect clause’ and ‘sanctity of contract’. Yet, the limit of subject matter rationale materiae jurisdiction does not remain uniform under the BITs.8 Some BITs encompass disputes pertaining to an ‘obligation under the agreement’ only for claims of violations of BIT. Other BITs extend the jurisdiction to ‘any dispute relating to investments’. Some others construct an international law obligation that a host state shall, for instance, ‘constantly guarantee the observance of the commitments it has entered to’; ‘observe any obligation it has assumed’, in respect to investments.9 Thus, a breach of such an obligation may consist of

Development of a Computer system application using 3GL tools Research Paper

Development of a Computer system application using 3GL tools & Design Phase - Research Paper Example The mobile division of the company is meant to create mobile software products, whose main use are on mobile phones, and laptop computers. The division runs a series of two programs, each with a program manager, and a handful of highly qualified staff. The program manager has the responsibility of developing an innovative idea concerning particular software, and he works together with his team. The Hakimo business department produces software’s for office applications. This software’s are to enhance effective communication within a company. This division combines the services of employees at the business solution department and the mobile division of the company. This is because of the experience, and skills in their possession. The information department handles the public relations of the company, and the company’s main business strategy is to enter into a strategic alliance with large software companies. 3GLS stands for Third Generation Languages. It is a collection of programming languages that enhance the development of second generational languages. Examples of 3GLS tools are Pascal, the C family of languages and BASIC. A program developed by 3GL tools is referred to as a source code, which is converted by a specific program, known as the complier, to the object code. This code is recognized by a specific computer. In developing this program, programmers use aggregate data types, and variable names, and they combine this with skills in defining parts of the code, into subroutines. 3GLS tools such as Fortran, Pascal and the C family enable a programmer to develop programs that are independent of a specific computer (Shooman, 2002). These languages are referred to as high level languages, because they are close to the language spoken by humans. These languages can run at any computer, and are not limited to specifics. Programmers who use Pascal to develop computer

The Interpretation of Umbrella Clause in Investment Treaties Essay

The Interpretation of Umbrella Clause in Investment Treaties - Essay Example However, umbrella clause has been widely debated in academic discussions and arbitral practices during the recent years4. Commentators have illustrated the argument in terms of interpretation the umbrella clause in investment treaties that derived from different tribunals in order to know whether breaching contractual obligations amount to violating treaty obligations. Within the context of this argument, tribunals will be able to know if they have the jurisdiction to hear claims arising from an alleged investment contract breach. This essay aims to analyse the interpretation of umbrella clause in investment treaties. In the subsequent part of this paper first, the definition of umbrella clause has been provided according to some commentators, and different formulations of the umbrella terms have also been included in the part. Subsequent to that, the background of umbrella clause is accounted for. ... 1. Definition of Umbrella Clause Some authors and commentators tried during the last decade to explain the meaning of umbrella clause. Dolzer and Schreuer represented it as â€Å"a provision in an investment protection treaty that guarantees the observation of obligations assumed by the host state vis-a-vis the investor†.5 Moreover, Gallagher and Shan introduced the umbrella clause by revealing that the clause is taken its name from its main objective namely in order to â€Å"oblige the host state to observe any commitments it has entered into with regard to foreign investors†.6 Some also assume that the umbrella clause could be extended to beyond what it created for, as F.A. Mann stated that the umbrella clause â€Å"is a provision of particular importance in that it protects the investor against any interference with his contractual rights, whether it results from a mere breach of contract or legislative or administrative act†.7 As a matter of fact, umbrella cl ause is also known as ‘mirror effect’, ‘pacta sunt servanda clause’, ‘parallel effect’, ‘elevator’, ‘respect clause’ and ‘sanctity of contract’. Yet, the limit of subject matter rationale materiae jurisdiction does not remain uniform under the BITs.8 Some BITs encompass disputes pertaining to an ‘obligation under the agreement’ only for claims of violations of BIT. Other BITs extend the jurisdiction to ‘any dispute relating to investments’. Some others construct an international law obligation that a host state shall, for instance, ‘constantly guarantee the observance of the commitments it has entered to’; ‘observe any obligation it has assumed’, in respect to investments.9 Thus, a breach of such an obligation may consist of

A comparison of black no more by george schuyler and the souls of black folk by w e b du bois Essay Example for Free

A comparison of black no more by george schuyler and the souls of black folk by w e b du bois Essay As African Americans who lived around the turn of the 20th century, both George S. Schuyler and W.E.B. Du Bois encountered the issue of race in the United States in the intimate fashion. The identity of the African American was an unresolved question during this period, and as prolific writers and social commentators, these two men constructed solutions to this matter through their respective literary approach. Schuyler composed a provocative narrative entitled Black No More, which offered an answer to the issue of race through satire. Du Bois alternatively held a more practical approach to dissolving racial barriers in the United States, which took into account the identity of the modern African American within a series of essays entitled The Souls of Black Folk. To the same extent that their literary styles differed, so too did their perspectives on race. Through fictional example, Schuyler regarded race as a quality among human beings which served to mislead, allowing it to be wielded as a tool for separation and disparity among the groups which is defined, while Du Bois’ insight into the Afro-American condition, both past, and present, uplifted race as being a stronghold of community and therefore a source of individual empowerment. In Black No More, Schuyler presented the quality of race as an obstacle that stood between African Americans and realizing their true identity. Schuyler understood, as did all African Americans in the 1930s, that the problem with race is the social pressure that being of a certain race can impose. Being of an inferior race, it can barricade an individual and a group’s collective aspirations. Race can be reminiscent of a smokescreen that hangs before one’s actual identity. If this is the case, race becomes something that we want to escape and to transcend. Given this confinement, Black No More presents the idea that if we were able to change our race, we should. As compared to finding a way for the black community to assimilate into the white community through social reform, Schuyler proposed an end to the color line by assimilating African Americans visually. Through Dr. Junius Crookman’s technological creation, known as Black No More, Inc., the skin of blacks ca n miraculously be turned white. In the book, the process is tremendously effective because the black people who undergo the Black No More process are not only white in color but become virtually indistinguishable from whites in physical appearance as well. This provided an avenue for many people to live a life of increased privilege without the anxiety of racial discrimination. In spite of all of the promise that this business scheme presented, by erasing the black population in the United States, Crookman effectively erodes the significance of race along with it. The dynamic of race changes from an inherent, inborn quality that all human beings possess to something that is constructed and we, therefore, have a choice in deciding. As the birth of black babies from seemingly white couples within the novel indicates, the race is still defined to be a genetic characteristic. In such a world where the color of one’s skin is mutable, however, the race has meaning only as something socially constructed. In alignment with the selfish views that many of Schuyler’s characters possess, we would all choose to be white because it is the race that is in the majority and provides the greatest personal advantage. In this context, the race is a fiction. Given this notion that race resembles a smokescreen that clouds our true identity, Black No More shows how race can be very misleading. African Americans living during the early 20th century felt their culture to be inferior to that of whites and the attitudes of black characters within the book are a reflection of that sentiment. Instead of promoting an inferior culture, the normative choice for them was to look for ways to become white. This ability to fully enter into white culture is what made Black No More such a lucrative business. Schuyler, however, was convinced that black culture was equal to that of white culture, and articulated this lack of difference through the intelligence that many of his black, or previously black characters possess in contrast to the white characters. Dr. Crookman, for example, is clearly very intelligent to have created such a powerful force behind the Black No More operation. Additionally, Max, the guinea pig of the operation, lives in a world tha t has convinced him that he is inferior by his skin color alone, yet he becomes a white man, who goes out to exploit droves of white men for his own personal gain. The setbacks which Max faced as a black man were not innate, but were imposed by society. Max is a smart individual, and the only factor that played into his social disparity before and after his transformation was the color of his skin. Yet, undergoing such a seemingly simple transition from black to white indicates the lack of a black culture. This lack of a black culture was seen through Max’s lack of self-evaluation when undergoing the Black No More process. There is no regret that Max encounters by turning his back on his kind, and neither do the individuals that follow him in the process. The only thing Max realizes is the lie that white culture perpetuates. For as much freedom and as many liberties as being white provides, the superiority of white culture in comparison to a black culture within the United States has misled him into thinking that white people are more interesting than they truly are, while that is simply not the case. Even though Max finds the black culture more interesting, he still does not think twice about turning his back on his kind in exchange for greater prosperity and happiness. Considering that race can be manipulated to change one’s appearance and consequently, their liberties, race exists as a tool. One would imagine that the abolition of blackness in Black No More would result in an end to racism, the solution to the race problem in the United States yet, in a paradoxical twist, a color line must be fabricated. It becomes known that the extremely pale people are the black people who turned white. Pale individuals become the target of discrimination, which influences all people to collectively desire a darker skin color. Instead of being a bastion of values that has the ability to unite groups of people, the race is acknowledged as something divisive. This is signified by the droves of African Americans who turn their back on their kind with little thought and pay for the Black No More process day after day. In a capitalist society, the race ultimately matters more than class. As compared to a world where race is indicative of something beneath the surface, Black No More creates a reality in which race is controllable, and at the fee of $50, it is a tool accessible for all black people, even in a post-Depression society. To use race as a means of providing an underclass is a problem that is deeply rooted in our economic system, and cannot be purged without great social change. Schuyler conveyed the absurdity of this system through the public lynching of the book’s political figures. This event shows that even at a time when there is great social change, humans still possess a fundamental desire to discriminate against others based on the color of their skin. As a former socialist, Schuyler may have been making a point about the flaw of the capitalist system, but the oppression of others is an ethical matter that undoubtedly falls upon the shoulders of the American people. Instead of intending to fabricate a panacea to the tune of Black No More, Inc., Du Bois’ intent within The Souls of Black Folk was to flesh out the impediment that being black provided for the African American individual. Du Bois’ main concern in his essays rested in what he called the â€Å"veil.† This veil is a symbol of the ignorance of America towards the problems of blacks. It blocks insight into the problems of African Americans and serves to prevent blacks from taking their place in society as full American citizens. Until the veil is removed, argued Du Bois, the continuing schism between the two races will grow wider and wider. Closely tied to the concept of the veil is that of double consciousness, or the process by which blacks have two identities within one body. Du Bois historically charts the development of the ‘World Spirit’ through its many peoples: Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, Greeks, Romans and Germans. Of this 7th type, the African American, Du Bois conceives sort of the seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world—a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world†1 It is this seventh son, who possesses a distinct â€Å"twoness.† For Du Bois, the African American possessed no direct vision but was measured only by the tape of the white world that oppressed him. This seventh son lives as both an American and an African American. The trouble with this was not the possession of two identities, but the possession of two contradictory identities. To survive i n America, the black man must assimilate, yet he has bound to a unifying sense of community that his color provides. This duality of serving as a kind of self-alienation for the black individual. Although the African American alone shares this crisis of identity, Du Bois expressed that this uniqueness of boring a united community that was empowered by their shared experience. Du Bois noted that the black community was signified by a number of defining cultural developments. In particular, he gave credit to the African American church as an institution that served to bind the souls of black folk. He described the church as â€Å"a real conserver of morals, a strengthener of family life, and the final authority on what is Good and Right.2 While some churches had simply become places of business that aimed to avoid unpleasant questions both within and without the black world,†3 they still remained a place where social, political, and economic inequity could be addressed in a public forum. The development of African American spirituals, or â€Å"sorrow songs,† also spoke to a development in which hope and community had been forged from despair. Sorrow songs had a gr eat depth of meaning to them and were written at the intersection of history, poetry, celebration, sadness, and soul. They had been refined through years of repetition and were songs that brought together a group through the collective spirit that is embodied within the song. The ability for spirituals to reinforce the value of preserving a distinctly black culture may have been the reason for why Du Bois called this music â€Å"the greatest gift of the Negro people.†4 Both the church and sorrow songs provided an avenue for African Americans to turn angst and frustration regarding their racial barriers into strength through numbers. Only other African Americans could truly empathize with their struggle and this public recognition of their shared plight served to channel negative emotions into an atmosphere of hope. According to Du Bois, the mutual understanding of the black community did not only serve uplift the African American; it defined him. The solution to many of the problems that afflicted African Americans emerged for Du Bois in the form of education. Du Bois was an impassioned advocate for higher education. While Booker T. Washington focused on educating blacks for the trades and manual labor, Du Bois insisted that blacks should have access to intellectual education rivaling that available to whites. It was through enlightened public schooling that education would not only reach blacks but whites as well. Only through this mutual knowledge could this veil and consequently the affliction of the black individual be lifted. Although Du Bois received a classical education, as the numerous Greek and Roman allusions within his essays display, he did not believe every black should receive a classical education. He recognized that many are not up to the task, but a â€Å"talented tenth† could receive this type of education. These blacks would then go out and spread education and culture within the black community. Du Bois himself is an exemplum of his own ideas, by showing how a black can benefit from education and provide a common ground between black and white. During a speech which addressed the death of Martin Luther King, Jr., Robert F. Kennedy advised that we â€Å"tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world.† This quotation serves to characterize the relationship that these two works share. Schuyler’s Black No More provides as a normative view for how people and the idea of race functions in a society, while Du Bois’ The Souls of Black Folk offers a prescriptive view for how all groups in the United States should behave with respect to the presence of race. By virtue of a sweeping and seemingly brilliant solution to the African American identity, Black No More serves to show that there is no immediate solution to problems of race. The most common trait among the characters within Schuyler’s novel, regardless of their race, is the materialist sentiment that they possess. The reality is that individual interests and aspirations of dominance over others will always motivate people. Even in a society with one race, there will always be an effort for individuals to stratify themselves through class. In light of these constants within society, we must uphold the ideals that Du Bois espoused. Whether race is a social construction or it is indicative of something more essential about who we are, its effects on society are very real. Du Bois provides us with a manner of dealing with the ubiquity of the color line, whether black or white. While African Americans may struggle to live with this twoness of identity, race can be an important quality to embrace because it provides the support of a specific community. Guided by the collective good of both races, Du Bois’ proposition for the availability of higher education would ease the social afflictions of black folk by allowing them to achieve greater prosperity and to provide white individuals the ability to better understand and appreciate their position within society. Works Cited 1Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford Univ Pr, 2009, p. 3. Print. 2Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford Univ Pr, 2009, p. 128. Print. 3Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford Univ Pr, 2009, p. 149. Print. 4Du Bois, W.E.B. The Souls of Black Folk. Oxford Univ Pr, 2009, p. 181. Print.

Concepts of Language and Cognitive Development

Concepts of Language and Cognitive Development 1. Introduction Language is a symbolic system in which a limited number of signals can be combined according to rules that can provide an infinite number of messages. An important milestone in human development is mastering some type of language. (Sigelman, Rider De George-Walker, 2013). Language is the primary method that adults pass on culturally valued models of thinking and problem solving to their children (Vygotsky, 1962). Basic language skills develop through the influence of parents, other adults, peers and even the media. 2. Language Development The nature vs. nurture debate continues into language development. One school of thought is that the environment contributes to learning. Children learn the words that they hear spoken by others-even when the words are not directly spoken to them (Floor Akhtar, 2006). The other school of thought by nativists who minimise the role of language environment and focus instead on the role of the child’s biologically programmed capacities to acquire language. Chomsky (2000) proposed that humans have a unique genetic capacity to learn language and are equipped with knowledge of a universal grammar, a system of common rules that enable any language to be learnt. Interactionists believe that both learning theorists (nurture) and nativists (nature) have merit. Children’s biologically based competencies and the language environment interact to shape the course of language development (Bloom, 1998) 3. Interaction between language and cognitive development Piaget proposed four major periods of cognitive development: the sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations stage and formal operations stage. The core message is that humans of different ages think in different ways. (Inhelder Piaget, 1958). During Piaget’s sensorimotor stage, birth to two years, infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. According to Gervain Mehler (2010) newborns immediately have a preference for speech over non-speech in their native language. By 7 months, infants demonstrate word segmentation. From birth infants produce a wide array of sounds that will eventually develop into language (Waxman Lidz, 2006), with cooing being the first vocalisation milestone at 6-8weeks. Babbling starts to occur at 4-6 months which Piaget labels as primary circular reaction. (Lee, Davis MacNeilage, 2010). As infants attempt to master the semantics of language, they begin to understand many words before the can say them and begin to say their first real words or holophrases at around 1 year. Many children have a vocabulary spurt at around 18months of age and the pace of word learning quickens dramatically. (Bloom, 1998). Secondary circular reactions begin to occur, following with tertiary circular reactions becoming intentional from the start. Piaget proposed that the child’s construction of reality takes place through the use of schemes and by the end of the sensorimotor stage they are capable of using symbolic thought using images and words. (Piaget, 2002) Vygotsky (1962) maintained that cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs. It develops from children’s interactions with members of their culture. Problem solving is passed on from generation to generation through oral communication, especially as it is embodied in language, shapes thought. (Sigelman, Rider, De George-Walker, 2013). In Piaget’s preoperational stage, 2 to 7 years, young children use their symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play and solve problems. They use words to talk about a problem and use categorisations which become the basis for language with each noun or verb representing a category. (Waxman, 2003). The next step in language development is telegraphic speech where toddlers begin to use a combination of two or three word sentences to express basic ideas. Between ages of 2-5 years children start to use sentences that are much longer and more grammatically complex. (Hoff, 2009). Children learn to phrase questions to solve problems and propel their cognitive growth. Throughout childhood and adolescence, advances in cognitive development are accompanied by advances in language and communication skills. Adults also refine the pragmatic use of language, adjusting it to different social and professional contexts. (Obler, 2005) 4. Multilingual Development According to Schwartz, Share, Leikin Kominski (2008), being bilingual or multilingual has benefits, as children have greater awareness of the underlying structure of language. Bilingual children are better understanding that words are symbols for objects and are better at applying grammatical rules. Bhargava Mendiratta (2007) purport that their study indicates that Indian children who are multilingual by mid-childhood are able to effectively use different languages in different contexts and participate well in the global economy. Swanson, Saez Gerber (2004) also states that children who speak more than one language score higher on cognitive ability and flexibility, and analytical reasoning, indicating that there are benefits of being bilingual. 5. Conclusion Developing a language competence is one of a human being’s earliest learning challenge. Language lays the foundation for further education and the acquisition of reading, writing and many other skills. Language development requires a child to be at the appropriate biological phases in an environment that is conducive to growth, with at least one conversational partner who is prepared to tailor the speech to the level of the child’s understanding to enhance cognitive development. References Bhargava, S., Mendiratta, A. (2006) Understanding language patterns of multilingual children (8-10 years) belonging to high socio-economic class. Social Science International, 22, 148-158. Bloom, L. (1998) Language acquisition in its developmental context. In D.Kuhn R. S. Sigler (Eds), W.Damon (editor-in-chief). Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 2, cognition, perception and language (5th ed., pp. 309-370). New York: Wiley Chomsky, N. (2000) New horizons in the study of language and mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Floor, P. Akhtar, N. (2006) Can 18 month old infants learn words by listening in on conversations? Infancy, 9,327-329. Gervain, J. Mehler, J. (2010). Speech perception and language acquisition in the first year of life. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 191-218. Hoff, E. (2009) Language development. Belmont CA: Wadsworth. Inhelder, B. Piaget, J. (1958) The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence: An essay on the construction of formal operational structures. (A Parsons S. Milgram, Trans). New York: Basic Books. Lee, S.A., Davis, B. MacNeilage, P. (2010) Universal production patterns and ambient language influences in babbling: A cross-linguistic study of Korean and English learning infants. Journal of Child Language, 37, 293-318. Obler, L.K. (2005) Language in adulthood. In J. B. Gleason (Ed.) The development of language (6th Edn) Boston: Allyn Bacon. Piaget, J. (2002). The epigenetic system and the development of cognitive functions. In R.O. Gilmore, M, H. Johnson, Y, Munakata (Eds.). Brain development and cognition: A reader (2nd ed, pp. 29-35) Malden: Blackwell. Schwartz, M., Share, D.L., Leikin, M., Kominsky, E. (2008) On the benefits of bi-literacy: Just a head start in reading or specific orthographic insights? Reading and Writing, 21,905-927. Sigelman C.K., Rider, E.A., De George-Walker, L. (2013). Life Span: Human Development. Australian and New Zealand edition. CENGAGE. Swanson, H., Saez, L. Gerber, M. (2004) Literacy and cognitive functioning in bilingual and nonbilingual children t or not at risk for reading disabilities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 3-18. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962) Thought and Language. E Hanfmann G. Vakar, (Eds Trans.) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press (Original work published in 1934) Waxman, S.R. (2003) Links between categorisation and naming: Origins and emergence in human infant. In D.H. Rakison L.M. Oakes (eds.) Early category and concept development: making sense of the blooming, bussing confusion (pp. 193-209). New York. Oxford University Press. Waxman, S.R. Lidz, J.L. (2006) Early word learning. . In D.Kuhn R. S. Siegler (Vol. Eds), W.Damon R Lerner (Eds). Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol 2, cognition, perception and language (6th ed., pp. 299-335). New York: Wiley